BPCG-171 Solved Assignment

Question 1

Explain major theories of intelligence and describe how intelligence is commonly assessed

Introduction

In psychology, intelligence is treated as a broad mental capacity that helps a person think rationally, solve problems, and adapt to real-life demands. Because intelligence is a complex construct, psychologists explain it through different theories and assess it through different kinds of tests rather than relying on only one definition or one score.

A. Key theories of intelligence

• Spearman’s two-factor theory: Spearman proposed that performance in many mental tasks reflects (1) a general mental ability (g) that supports a wide range of activities, and (2) task-specific abilities (s) that vary depending on the particular activity. In simple terms: a learner may have an overall “general ability,” but also strengths that are more specific (for example, stronger verbal skill than spatial skill).
• Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (PMA): Thurstone argued that intelligence is better understood as a set of relatively independent abilities rather than one single g. The seven PMAs typically described are word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. This approach fits everyday observation: students may show clear strengths in some abilities and average performance in others.
• Sternberg’s triarchic theory: Sternberg described intelligence in three interacting forms: (i) analytical (doing well on standard academic-type tasks), (ii) creative (generating novel ideas and solutions), and (iii) practical (adapting to situations and managing real-world demands). For example, two learners with similar exam scores may differ greatly in creativity or “street-smart” practical problem-handling.
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences: Gardner suggested that intelligence is not a single academic ability; instead, people show different combinations of intelligences. Commonly discussed types include linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and (later added) naturalistic intelligence. This helps explain why a student who is not outstanding in mathematics may still be excellent in music, sports, leadership, or self-understanding.
• Emotional and social intelligence: Beyond traditional IQ, psychologists also discuss non-cognitive forms of intelligence. Emotional intelligence is often described as the ability to perceive emotions, use emotions to support thinking, understand emotions, and regulate emotions in oneself and others. Social intelligence involves understanding and managing social relationships effectively. These capacities can strongly influence academic adjustment, teamwork, and coping with stress.

B. Ways of assessing intelligence

Assessment of intelligence became more systematic after early intelligence testing work (for example, Binet and Simon) introduced the idea of comparing a person’s performance with typical age expectations (mental age vs chronological age). Later, IQ was expressed as a ratio-based calculation.

$$ IQ=\left(\frac{MA}{CA}\right)\times 100 $$

Modern assessment uses multiple formats, depending on purpose and context:

• Individual tests vs group tests: Individual tests are administered one-on-one (useful for detailed profiling), while group tests can be administered to many people at once (useful in schools or large-scale screening).
• Major examples:
  • Stanford–Binet: A widely used individual test with subtests covering several cognitive factors (for example, reasoning and working memory domains) and providing multiple IQ indices.
  • Wechsler scales: Separate scales exist for different age groups (preschool, children, and adults). They typically include both verbal and nonverbal subtests, and Wechsler also proposed a score-comparison approach for age-based IQ interpretation.
  • Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Often used as a nonverbal group-administered or individually administered measure of reasoning with visual patterns, commonly discussed as tapping fluid intelligence.
• Verbal vs nonverbal (performance) tests: Verbal tests rely heavily on language-based reasoning, while nonverbal tests use visual patterns or construction-type tasks, helping assess people who may have language limitations or limited formal schooling.
• Culture-fair tests: Because language, schooling, and cultural experiences influence test performance, culture-fair approaches attempt to reduce cultural bias, often using nonverbal formats. At the same time, psychologists acknowledge that tests may reduce cultural influence but cannot remove it completely.

Student-friendly applied example

Consider a class where one learner consistently scores high in written exams (analytical and verbal strengths), another learner excels in organizing group activities (interpersonal and practical strengths), and another learner shows strong performance in sports or dance (bodily-kinesthetic strength). A single paper-pencil IQ-style score may reflect only part of their abilities, so psychologists select assessment tools based on the question being asked (academic placement, learning difficulty identification, counseling support, etc.).

Conclusion

Overall, intelligence is best understood as a multi-dimensional capacity explained through complementary theories. In practice, assessment is strongest when it uses appropriate tools (individual/group, verbal/nonverbal, culture-sensitive formats) and interprets scores alongside real-world functioning.

Question 2

Describe the main stages of perception and explain key Gestalt laws of perceptual organization

Introduction

Perception helps us make sense of the environment by turning sensory input into meaningful experience. In everyday student life, perception guides quick decisions such as recognizing a friend in a crowd, understanding a teacher’s tone, or judging traffic while crossing a road.

A. Stages of perception

• Stage 1: Selection Because the brain cannot attend to all stimuli at once, we (consciously or unconsciously) focus on certain inputs and ignore others. For example, in a noisy classroom, a student may focus on the teacher’s voice and filter out background chatter.
• Stage 2: Organization The selected information is arranged into patterns so it can be understood. This process is largely automatic, and Gestalt principles explain how the mind groups stimuli into meaningful wholes.
• Stage 3: Interpretation Finally, meaning is assigned. Interpretation depends on prior experiences, expectations, beliefs, and current needs—so two people may interpret the same situation differently (for example, one student sees a teacher’s strictness as “rude,” another sees it as “discipline”).

B. Gestalt laws (laws of organization) in perception

Gestalt psychologists emphasized that perception is not simply adding up parts; we naturally look for patterns and structure, and the “whole” is experienced differently than isolated pieces.

• Figure–ground: We separate a focused object (figure) from its background (ground). This explains why the same image can “flip” depending on what you focus on, and why attention changes what you notice first.
• Proximity: Items close to each other are perceived as belonging together. In notes or infographics, students instantly read nearby bullet points as a group.
• Similarity: Similar items (shape, color, size) are grouped together. In a diagram, same-colored boxes are automatically seen as related.
• Continuity (good continuation): We prefer smooth, continuous patterns. When reading a flowchart, students tend to follow continuous lines and assume they represent one process.
• Closure: We mentally “fill in” missing parts to perceive a complete object. This is why incomplete shapes in logos still look whole to us.
• Common fate: Elements moving in the same direction are grouped together. In real life, people walking in the same direction may be perceived as a group.
• Pragnanz (good form): We tend to perceive the simplest and most stable form possible. When information is complex, learners simplify it into an easier pattern to remember.

Conclusion

Perception becomes understandable when we see it as a three-stage process (selection, organization, interpretation) supported by Gestalt laws that explain how the brain naturally organizes stimuli into meaningful patterns.

Question 3

Explain the main methods used in psychology and outline important applications of psychology

A. Methods of psychology (how psychologists study behaviour)

• Experimental method: A psychologist manipulates an independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable, helping establish cause–effect conclusions.
• Observation method: Behaviour is recorded in a natural setting. This is useful when studying real-world behaviour, but careful recording is needed to reduce bias.
• Survey/interview methods: Information is collected by asking people questions (useful for attitudes, opinions, and self-reported behaviour).
• Case study: An in-depth study of an individual or small group, often useful for rare conditions or detailed clinical understanding.
• Correlation: Correlation examines relationships between variables. A correlation coefficient can range from +1 to -1, where +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship, -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship, and r=0 indicates no linear relationship. (Correlation does not by itself prove causation.)

B. Applications of psychology (where psychological knowledge is used)

• Clinical psychology: Assessment and treatment of mental illness and maladaptive behaviour.
• Counseling and community psychology: Support for adjustment issues (stress, relationships, life transitions) and community-level mental health and prevention.
• Educational psychology: Understanding learning, motivation, and classroom behaviour; designing effective teaching and assessment strategies.
• Health psychology: Promoting healthy behaviour, managing stress-related issues, and supporting coping with illness.
• Industrial/organizational psychology: Applying psychology to workplaces (selection, training, performance, leadership, and wellbeing).
• Forensic psychology: Applying psychology in legal settings (crime prevention, rehabilitation, and courtroom-related issues).

Student-friendly applied example

A student preparing for exams may use psychological principles to improve memory strategies, manage anxiety, and build motivation. At the same time, schools use psychological testing to identify learning difficulties and provide appropriate support, while workplaces use psychological principles to improve training and teamwork.

Question 4

Describe the structure of the nervous system

Introduction

The nervous system is the body’s main communication network. It supports behaviour by receiving information, processing it, and coordinating responses through neural signals.

A. Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain: The brain is the major control center. It includes large functional regions (commonly discussed as forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain). Different parts contribute to thinking, emotion, coordination, and survival functions.
• Spinal cord: The spinal cord carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body and supports reflex actions (quick responses without waiting for full brain processing).

B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS links the CNS to the rest of the body. It is commonly described as having two main divisions:

• Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary movements and carries sensory information (for example, writing notes, walking, or sensing touch).
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat and digestion. The ANS is typically divided into:
  • Sympathetic system: Activates the body for action (often described as “fight-or-flight”), such as increased heart rate during stress.
  • Parasympathetic system: Helps the body return to a calm state (often described as “rest-and-digest”), supporting recovery and energy conservation.

Student-friendly applied example

Before an exam, many students feel a racing heart and sweaty palms—this reflects sympathetic activation. After the exam, the body gradually settles down as parasympathetic processes support relaxation and recovery.

Question 5

Explain the process of thinking

Introduction

Thinking is a higher mental process strongly linked with problem solving. It involves using internal representations (rather than direct physical trial) to plan, decide, and understand situations.

A. Thinking as mental representation

• Mental imagery: Creating “pictures in the mind,” which helps in planning and remembering (for example, imagining the route to an examination center).
• Concepts: Mental categories that help us organize information efficiently (for example, the concept “motivation” or “memory” helps a student group many related ideas together).
• Propositions: Abstract representations of meaning and relationships between concepts (not necessarily in words or images). For example, understanding the meaning relationship in a simple statement is propositional thinking.

B. How the thinking process appears in study life

In academic settings, a learner often starts with imagery (visualizing a diagram), uses concepts (grouping topics like “attention” and “perception”), and then uses propositions (linking ideas logically, such as “attention influences what is selected in perception”). This is why good answers typically show clear connections between ideas rather than memorized lines.

Conclusion

Thinking can be understood as a structured mental activity that operates through imagery, conceptual categories, and meaning-based propositions, allowing a person to plan, reason, and solve problems effectively.

Question 6

State the main functions of emotions with brief examples

• Emotions prepare us for action: Emotions can energize and direct immediate responses (for example, fear can push a student to move away from danger; anger can prepare a person to confront an unfair situation).
• Emotions shape future behaviour: Emotional experiences influence what we repeat or avoid later. For example, if a learner feels pride after completing a presentation successfully, they are more likely to volunteer again; if they feel strong embarrassment, they may avoid similar tasks unless supported.
• Emotions support interaction and relationships: Emotions help communicate needs and intentions and improve social coordination. For instance, showing gratitude strengthens bonds, and showing concern can invite help and cooperation.

Question 7

Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in a simple way

Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. The basic idea is that when lower (more basic) needs are unmet, they dominate attention and motivation; as they become reasonably satisfied, people become more motivated by higher needs.

• Physiological needs: food, water, rest
• Safety needs: security, stability
• Love and belongingness: friendship, family support, acceptance
• Esteem needs: confidence, recognition, achievement
• Self-actualization: realizing one’s full potential (being what one is capable of becoming)

Student-friendly example

If a student is hungry or sleep-deprived (physiological needs), it becomes hard to concentrate. When basic needs are stable, students focus more on belonging (peer support), then esteem (doing well and being recognized), and eventually on self-actualization (mastering skills, meaningful goals).

Question 8

Explain the concept of problem solving with an example

Problem solving is a goal-directed form of thinking where we use ideas and symbols to move from a current situation to a desired outcome, often by comparing options mentally rather than only by trial-and-error action. In this sense, problem solving is a core part of thinking.

Example

When a learner faces a difficult exam question, they may first clarify what is being asked, recall related concepts, connect ideas logically (propositions), and then choose the best explanation to write. This shows problem solving through mental representation and reasoning rather than random guessing.

Question 9

Summarize Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

Freud proposed that personality development proceeds through five psychosexual stages. Each stage focuses on a particular source of pleasure, and unresolved conflicts can lead to fixation—meaning the person may carry certain patterns into adulthood.

• Oral stage (birth to about 18 months): Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, swallowing). Fixation may relate to behaviours like overeating or smoking-like oral habits.
• Anal stage (about 18 months to 3 years): Pleasure and conflict involve control of bowel/bladder functions and toilet training demands. Fixation patterns may show as being overly rigid/controlling or overly messy/careless.
• Phallic stage (about 3 to 5 years): Focus shifts to genitals; Freud discussed the Oedipus/Electra dynamics and development of sexual identity.
• Latency stage (about 6 to 12 years): Sexual energy is largely redirected into learning, sports, and social development.
• Genital stage (adolescence to adulthood): Mature sexuality and intimate relationships develop; unresolved earlier conflicts may cause relationship difficulties.

Question 10

Explain the life-span perspective on development (Baltes) in brief

The life-span perspective (associated with Paul Baltes) views development as a lifelong process shaped by multiple influences. It argues that all age periods matter and development does not stop after childhood. Key principles include: development is lifelong, multidimensional (physical, cognitive, personality, social), multidirectional (growth and decline can occur together), and highly plastic (people can adapt and change). Development is also influenced by multiple interacting factors, including age-graded influences, history-graded influences, and non-normative influences.