IGNOU BPAG-171 Solved Question Paper Jan 2025 for BAEGH

Question 1

Explain the main categories of natural disasters and give suitable examples.

When we say “natural disaster”, we are talking about extreme natural events which become disasters because they hit people and assets that are exposed and vulnerable. In the course, natural disasters are usually grouped into four broad types: geophysical, hydrological, climatological (or hydro-meteorological) and biological.

Question 2

Discuss the major factors that increase people’s vulnerability to disasters.

Vulnerability is simply the tendency of people, infrastructure or systems to suffer damage when a hazard strikes. It is not only about where people live, but also about how they live, what resources they control and how strong their institutions are.

1. Poverty and limited livelihoods

Poor households often live in unsafe locations (steep slopes, riverbanks, low-lying urban slums) because safer land is unaffordable.
They have weak houses, no savings, little insurance and very few options if crops fail or shops are destroyed.
After a disaster, such families may have to sell assets, pull children out of school or migrate – increasing their long-term vulnerability.

2. Social inequality and marginalisation

Women, children, elderly people, persons with disabilities, single women, migrants and socially marginalised groups are usually less able to protect themselves and to access relief.
Social norms may restrict women’s mobility or keep them away from warning meetings; elderly and disabled persons may not be able to run or relocate quickly.

3. Physical and environmental factors

Unsafe structures: Kuccha houses, non-engineered buildings and poorly maintained infrastructure collapse faster in earthquakes, cyclones or floods.
Environmental degradation: Deforestation, sand mining, wetland encroachment and poor drainage increase flood and landslide risk; climate change can intensify storms and droughts.

4. Rapid and unplanned urbanisation

Fast-growing towns often expand onto marginal lands—floodplains, steep hill slopes, reclaimed lakes—without proper planning or building regulation.
Overcrowded settlements, narrow lanes and lack of open spaces make evacuation and emergency response extremely difficult.

5. Weak institutions and governance

Where local bodies, disaster management authorities or line departments are weak, understaffed or poorly coordinated, preparedness remains low.
Poor enforcement of building codes, land-use plans and environmental regulations allows risky development to continue.

6. Lack of information, education and awareness

People may not know that they live in a high-risk area or what to do when they hear a warning.
Low educational levels, lack of access to reliable early warning, and fatalistic attitudes (“nothing can be done, it is God’s will”) all add to what the course calls educational, attitudinal and cultural vulnerability.

In practice, several of these factors overlap. For example, a poor migrant family living in an informal settlement near a river may simultaneously face economic, social, physical and political vulnerability. This is why disaster managers increasingly focus on long-term development measures—poverty reduction, inclusive services, stronger local institutions—alongside traditional relief and response.

Question 3

Give an overview of the institutional framework created under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides a legal and institutional framework for disaster management in India. It shifts the approach from ad-hoc relief to a more organised system focused on prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response, with institutions at national, state and district levels.

1. National level institutions

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):
- Chaired by the Prime Minister, it is the apex body for disaster management.
- Approves the National Disaster Management Plan, issues guidelines for different hazards and sectors, and coordinates with ministries and states.
National Executive Committee (NEC):
- Chaired by the Union Home Secretary, with secretaries of key ministries as members.
- Prepares the National Plan, monitors implementation of NDMA guidelines and coordinates response during major disasters.
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM):
- Acts as the national resource centre for training, capacity building, research and documentation on disaster management.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF):
- A specialised multi-disciplinary force created under the Act for prompt response, search and rescue and specialised operations during disasters.
National funds:
- The Act also provides for a National Disaster Response Fund and a National Disaster Mitigation Fund for meeting expenditure on response, relief and risk reduction.

2. State-level institutions

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA):
- Chaired by the Chief Minister, it lays down state policies and approves the State Disaster Management Plan.
- Ensures that mitigation and preparedness measures are integrated into state sectoral plans—such as housing, health, education and rural development.
State Executive Committee (SEC):
- Chaired by the Chief Secretary, it coordinates and monitors implementation of DM measures at state level.

3. District-level institutions

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA):
- Chaired by the District Collector / District Magistrate, with the elected head of the district as co-chair.
- Prepares and updates the District Disaster Management Plan, identifies vulnerable areas, coordinates with line departments, panchayats and NGOs, and directs response operations at district level.

4. Other key actors recognised under the Act

Local authorities: Panchayati Raj Institutions, municipalities and other local bodies are expected to prepare local DM plans, ensure building regulation, maintain basic services and carry out awareness activities.
Specialised services: Armed Forces, Central Armed Police Forces, State Police, Fire Services, Civil Defence, Home Guards and health services support evacuation, search and rescue, law and order and medical relief.
National policy and plan: The National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009 and the National Disaster Management Plan, 2016 further operationalise the framework and align it with global initiatives like the Sendai Framework.

Overall, the Act creates a multi-tier system where responsibilities are clearly allocated from the village level up to the national level, and where disaster management is treated as a continuous process linked with development planning rather than a one-time emergency activity.

Question 4

I- Briefly describe the main types of man-made disasters.

Man-made (or human-induced / technological) disasters arise mainly from human actions or negligence. They often occur in or near human settlements and are closely linked to how societies develop and manage technology and resources.

1. Complex emergencies and conflicts

These include wars, civil conflicts, large-scale communal violence and terrorism.
Such situations often lead to breakdown of law and order, destruction of infrastructure, hunger, disease and long-term displacement of people.
For example, prolonged conflict in a region can destroy schools and hospitals, push people into camps and make them dependent on relief for years.

2. Famine and food insecurity

While drought may be natural, famines usually become disasters because of human factors such as poor governance, unequal access to food, hoarding, conflict or delayed relief.
The impact is seen in rising malnutrition, migration, distress sale of livestock and long-term health problems among children.

3. Displacement and refugee flows

Large development projects (dams, highways, mining), communal tensions or conflicts can force people to leave their homes.
Unplanned relocation sites often lack basic services, leading to sanitation problems, disease and social tensions.

4. Transport accidents

Major road crashes, train derailments, ship collisions or air crashes are also considered disasters when they involve many casualties.
They may be caused by human error, poor maintenance, overloaded vehicles or weak enforcement of safety rules.

5. Industrial and technological accidents

These include chemical leaks, explosions, oil spills, nuclear accidents and dam failures.
The Bhopal gas tragedy is a classic example where release of toxic gas from a factory caused thousands of deaths and long-term health impacts.
Often, such events arise from poor safety culture, inadequate regulation and siting of hazardous industries close to settlements.

Although labelled “man-made”, many of these disasters are linked to deeper development issues—unsustainable industrialisation, rapid urban growth and weak governance—so prevention requires improved planning and regulation, not just emergency response.

II- Explain the idea and practice of search and rescue in disaster situations.

Search and Rescue (SAR) refers to the organised effort to locate people who are trapped, injured or missing after a disaster and to take them to a safe place where they can receive medical care and support. It is one of the earliest and most visible components of disaster response.

Immediate objective: To save as many lives as possible in the “golden hours” after an event like an earthquake, cyclone, landslide, flood or building collapse.
Who is involved:
- At the first stage, neighbours and community volunteers usually act even before formal teams arrive.
- They are later joined by Fire Services, Police, medical teams and specialised forces like NDRF and SDRF units equipped with tools, trained dogs, boats or helicopters.
Typical activities:
- Rapidly assessing which areas are worst affected and where people are likely to be trapped.
- Cutting through debris, breaking doors, tunnelling through collapsed structures, or using boats to reach marooned households.
- Providing basic first aid, controlling bleeding, immobilising fractures and shifting the injured to hospitals.
- Marking searched buildings to avoid duplication and to keep track of missing persons.
Coordination and safety:
- Operations are coordinated through the Emergency Operations Centre or Incident Response System so that different agencies do not work at cross purposes.
- Rescuers must protect themselves (helmets, gloves, masks, life jackets) and constantly monitor risks like aftershocks, fire, gas leaks or secondary landslides.

Field experience has repeatedly shown that trained community volunteers, youth clubs and local organisations make a huge difference in the first few hours, because they know the lanes, family structures and local languages. Therefore, the course stresses regular mock drills, basic SAR training and a sympathetic attitude towards victims as essential parts of preparedness, not just ad-hoc heroism when a disaster strikes.

Question 5

Examine the important elements of a damage assessment plan for critical sectors.

Damage assessment is the systematic process of finding out “what has happened, where and to whom” after a disaster. A good damage assessment plan helps administrators move beyond guesswork and take evidence-based decisions on relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.

1. Objectives and guiding principles

To estimate the nature and extent of losses to life, property, livelihoods and environment.
To identify urgent needs and prioritise assistance for the most affected and vulnerable sections.
To provide a sound basis for resource allocation, compensation and funding proposals to higher levels and external agencies.
The plan should balance speed with reasonable accuracy, use standard formats and be transparent and participatory.

2. Phased approach: rapid and detailed assessment

Rapid (initial) assessment: Conducted within the first 24–72 hours, often using brief formats to get a quick picture—number of deaths, injured, houses damaged, key infrastructure affected, and immediate relief needs.
Detailed assessment: Undertaken over the following days/weeks to quantify sector-wise losses, understand the causes of damage and plan long-term recovery.

3. Critical sectors covered in the plan

Human life and population:
- Number of deaths, missing persons and injured, disaggregated by sex, age and vulnerable groups.
- Information on orphaned children, widows, persons with disabilities and other special-needs groups.
Housing:
- Number and type of houses fully destroyed, severely damaged and partially damaged.
- Materials used, location (for example, river bank, hillside), and suitability of temporary shelter options.
Community infrastructure and lifeline services:
- Status of roads and bridges, electricity lines, water supply, drainage, communication systems, schools, anganwadis and health centres.
- Identification of bottlenecks that hinder relief—collapsed bridges, blocked roads, broken culverts etc.
Environment:
- Loss of forests and vegetation cover, soil erosion, siltation of water bodies, contamination of wells and rivers.
- Debris volume and presence of hazardous waste requiring safe disposal.
Livelihoods:
- Damage to crops, livestock, fisheries (boats, nets), small shops, workshops and informal sector activities.
- Understanding seasonal impacts—for instance, a flood just before harvest may wipe out an entire year’s income.
Health:
- Functionality of hospitals, sub-centres and diagnostic facilities.
- Outbreaks or risk of epidemics, status of drinking water and sanitation, need for vaccination and psycho-social support.

4. Institutional arrangements and methods

Formation of multi-disciplinary assessment teams including officials from line departments (revenue, public works, agriculture, health), as well as panchayat representatives, teachers, ASHA workers and community leaders.
Use of standard formats, checklists, GPS, photographs and simple GIS tools where possible, but without ignoring local observations and indigenous knowledge.
Data compilation and analysis at block and district levels through the Emergency Operations Centre, followed by regular updating as more information comes in.

From a student’s perspective, you can imagine the damage assessment plan as the “data backbone” of post-disaster work. If it is weak or delayed, relief becomes uneven, corruption risks increase and opportunities for “building back better” are lost. If it is strong and inclusive, the chances of fair and effective recovery are much higher.

Question 6

Discuss the funding arrangements available for reconstruction activities after a disaster.

Reconstruction—repairing and rebuilding houses, infrastructure and livelihoods—requires large and sustained financial resources. The course explains that India uses a mix of dedicated disaster funds, general development finance, special schemes and external support to finance reconstruction.

1. National and State Disaster Response Funds

National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF):
- A centrally administered fund meant primarily for meeting expenditure on immediate relief and some restoration works in the aftermath of severe disasters.
- States submit memoranda of losses; an Inter-Ministerial team assesses and recommends support.
State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF):
- The main fund at state level, financed jointly by the Centre and the State, as per Finance Commission recommendations.
- Used for relief, temporary restoration of infrastructure and some mitigation works, according to approved norms.

2. Funds for mitigation and “build back better”

National Disaster Mitigation Fund and state-level mitigation funds:
- Envisaged under the DM Act to support projects that reduce future risk—such as flood embankments, cyclone shelters, slope stabilisation and retrofitting of public buildings.
Finance Commission grants:
- Recent Finance Commissions have provided grants to local bodies for basic services and resilience building, for example, strengthening drinking water, drainage and sanitation in vulnerable areas.

3. Other public funding sources

District and local funds: States may create district-level funds to support local reconstruction and risk reduction initiatives, implemented through district and local bodies.
MPLADS and similar schemes: Under the Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme, MPs can recommend projects such as repair of community buildings, schools, small bridges and protective works in affected areas.
Prime Minister’s and Chief Ministers’ Relief Funds: These are used to provide ex gratia assistance to affected families and support reconstruction of houses or community assets in particularly severe events.

4. Insurance and risk transfer mechanisms

Insurance schemes: Crop insurance, livestock insurance, property insurance and health insurance reduce the financial burden on governments and help households rebuild faster.
Governments may also support micro-insurance and social security schemes for informal workers, which act as safety nets in post-disaster phases.

5. External assistance and development loans

Multilateral agencies like the World Bank and Asian Development Bank often provide emergency or reconstruction loans and grants.
According to the course, such lending is expected to support long-term recovery and risk reduction rather than only short-term relief—for example, investing in safer infrastructure, improved housing and sustainable livelihoods.

In practice, a reconstruction programme in any state will combine several of these sources: SDRF and state budget for immediate works, NDRF and external aid for large projects, local schemes and relief funds for house rebuilding, and insurance payouts at household level. The real test is not only how much money is mobilised, but whether it is used transparently to “build back better” and reduce future risk.

Question 7

Write a note on Community-Based Disaster Risk Assessment (CBDRA).

Community-Based Disaster Risk Assessment (CBDRA) is a participatory method for understanding disaster risk with the community rather than only for the community. It brings local people, especially those most at risk, into the centre of analysing hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities in their own area.

1. Why CBDRA is important

Communities are the first to face the impact of any disaster and also the first responders.
They have detailed knowledge about local hazards, safe places, traditional coping practices and social dynamics which outsiders cannot easily see.
CBDRA therefore provides a realistic foundation for Community-Based Disaster Management (CBDM) plans and helps ensure that risk reduction measures are practical and acceptable.

2. Key components of CBDRA

Hazard assessment:
- Community members identify the different hazards they face (floods, cyclones, landslides, droughts, industrial accidents, etc.), their frequency, intensity and seasonality.
- Typical tools: hazard maps, seasonal calendars, historical timelines of past disasters.
Vulnerability assessment:
- Examines who and what is at risk—settlements, critical facilities, livelihoods and social groups such as women, children, elderly, persons with disabilities and marginalised castes.
- Tools include social mapping, household surveys, focus group discussions and ranking exercises.
Capacity assessment:
- Identifies strengths the community already has—volunteer groups, youth clubs, women’s self-help groups, boats, tractors, first-aid skills, indigenous early-warning knowledge and social networks.
- This prevents a “victim-only” view and highlights local resources that can be mobilised quickly during emergencies.
Risk analysis and prioritisation:
- By combining information on hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities, the community and facilitators identify which risks are highest and which actions should be taken first.

3. Methods and tools used

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools such as transect walks (joint village walks to observe risks), Venn diagrams (to map institutions), resource maps and problem trees.
Separate discussions with women, youth and other vulnerable groups to ensure their voices are heard.
Use of simple visuals (coloured charts, stones, seeds) so that even non-literate members can participate actively.

4. Linking CBDRA to planning

The results of CBDRA feed directly into the community disaster management plan: choice of safe shelters, evacuation routes, location of stockpiles, design of early-warning systems and small-scale mitigation works.
Because the analysis and solutions are owned by the community, there is more willingness to contribute time, labour and local resources, and the measures are more likely to be sustained.

In simple terms, CBDRA changes the role of the community from “passive recipients of aid” to “active analysts and planners”. For students of public administration, it is a good example of bottom-up, participatory governance in action.

Question 8

I- Explain how disasters can also create opportunities for development initiatives.

At first sight, disasters seem to be only about destruction—loss of life, damaged infrastructure and disrupted livelihoods. The course, however, points out that the recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase can become an opportunity to “build back better” and to correct long-standing development weaknesses.

1. Disasters highlight hidden vulnerabilities

After a major flood, cyclone or earthquake, it often becomes very clear which areas, structures and groups were most at risk—for example, kuccha houses on riverbanks, unauthorised colonies on steep slopes or poorly built public buildings.
Such evidence creates political and public pressure to change building practices, relocate people from extremely unsafe locations and strengthen critical infrastructure.

2. Window for policy and institutional reforms

For a limited period after a disaster, there is usually high public awareness and willingness to accept change.
This can be used to introduce land-use regulations, safer building codes, improved environmental management and stronger local disaster management institutions that may have faced resistance earlier.

3. “Building back better” in housing and infrastructure

Reconstruction programmes can replace unsafe houses with hazard-resistant designs, raise plinth levels in flood-prone areas, and use better materials or layouts.
Lifeline systems like roads, bridges, power and communication networks can be rebuilt to higher standards so that they are less likely to fail in the next disaster.

4. Livelihood diversification and social development

Post-disaster schemes can create long-term employment through public works, skill development, micro-finance and support for small enterprises, rather than only short-term cash or food assistance.
Special attention can be given to vulnerable groups—women-headed households, landless labourers, informal workers—so that recovery reduces inequality instead of deepening it.

5. Additional external resources

International aid and development loans, if carefully planned, can support not just replacement of what was lost but improvement of infrastructure and services. The World Bank’s criteria for post-disaster investment, discussed in the unit, explicitly stress a long-term development perspective and reduction of future hazard risk.

Of course, these opportunities are not automatic. They can be missed if governments and agencies focus only on short-term relief, or if reconstruction simply rebuilds the same vulnerabilities as before. Seeing disasters as potential turning points for safer and more inclusive development is therefore a crucial mindset for future administrators.

II- Describe the main types of indigenous knowledge relevant for disaster management.

Indigenous (or traditional/local) knowledge is the community’s own body of experience, skills and values built over generations of interaction with their environment. The course groups such knowledge, in the context of disaster risk reduction, into three broad types: technological, economic and environmental knowledge.

1. Technological knowledge

This refers to local know-how about designing and building houses, infrastructure and other structures in ways suited to local hazards.
Examples from the unit include traditional earthquake-resistant techniques like the Taq and Dhajji-Dewari systems in Himalayan regions, or elevated houses in flood-prone and coastal areas.
Such practices may use simple materials (timber, bamboo, mud) but have evolved to provide flexibility and shock-absorption, and thus can be combined with modern engineering for cost-effective resilient construction.

2. Economic knowledge

This includes community strategies for surviving and recovering from crisis using local resources and social networks.
Examples: building temporary shelters from locally available materials; traditional systems of grain storage and sharing; rotating savings groups; and shifting to alternative livelihoods (e.g. wage work, small trades) during drought years.
Such knowledge helps families spread risk, reduce dependence on external aid and bounce back faster after a disaster.

3. Environmental knowledge

Environmental indigenous knowledge relates to how people read signs in nature and manage local ecosystems.
Communities often recognise early-warning indicators of cyclones, floods or droughts—changes in cloud patterns, unusual animal and bird behaviour, colour and smell of seawater or river water, wind direction and flowering patterns.
They may also have tried-and-tested practices for conserving water (such as traditional tanks, step-wells and diversion channels), protecting sacred groves and maintaining soil fertility, all of which reduce disaster risk over the long term.

For modern disaster management, the key message is not to romanticise indigenous knowledge, but to respect it and combine it with scientific knowledge. When disaster managers work with community wisdom rather than ignoring it, early warning systems become more trusted, structural measures fit better with local culture and overall resilience improves.

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