BPCG-171 Solved Question Paper

Question 1: Stages of Perception and Principles of Perceptual Organisation

Understanding perception

Perception is the process through which we select, organise and interpret the information coming through our sense organs. The same scene may be understood differently by different people because their needs, past learning and expectations are different.

Stages of perception

• Stage 1 – Selection: At any moment we are surrounded by many sights, sounds and smells, but we can attend to only a few. In this stage we pick some stimuli and ignore others. The selection is influenced by intensity (a loud noise), novelty (something new), our interests and our current goals. For example, in a noisy canteen you still focus on your friend’s voice when you are discussing an assignment.
• Stage 2 – Organisation: After selection, the brain arranges the bits of information into meaningful patterns. We do not see isolated dots and lines; we group them into objects like “table”, “chair”, “teacher”, etc. This grouping follows certain built-in tendencies discussed in Gestalt principles.
• Stage 3 – Interpretation: Finally, we give meaning to what has been organised. Interpretation depends on our past experiences, knowledge, expectations, culture and emotional state. For instance, a teacher’s raised voice may be interpreted by one student as anger, by another as concern, depending on their previous interactions.

Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation

Gestalt psychologists explained that we tend to perceive patterns and “wholes”, not just separate elements. Some important principles are:

• Figure–ground: We divide the visual field into a main object (figure) and background (ground). When you read this page, the letters are figure and the white page is ground. The same drawing can sometimes be seen in two ways, depending on what you take as figure.
• Law of proximity: Elements that are close to each other are seen as belonging together. If students are sitting in small clusters in a hall, we see them as separate groups rather than as scattered individuals.
• Law of similarity: Objects that look alike (same colour, shape or size) are grouped together. Players wearing the same jersey are immediately perceived as one team.
• Law of continuity (good continuation): We tend to see continuous lines or patterns rather than broken ones. When electrical wires cross on a pole, we still see each wire as going straight across instead of changing direction at every crossing.
• Law of closure: We mentally “fill in” gaps to perceive a complete object. A broken circle is still seen as a circle. In daily life, even if a part of a signboard is covered, we can read the full word.
• Law of common fate: Elements moving in the same direction are seen as a unit. Birds flying together in the sky are perceived as a flock.
• Law of Prägnanz (good form): We prefer simple, balanced and organised forms rather than complex or disorganised ones. That is why neat diagrams and charts are easier to understand.

In everyday life, these stages and principles work so quickly and smoothly that we usually do not notice them. But they help us make sense of a very complex sensory world.

Question 2: Major Theories Explaining Motivation

Meaning of motivation

Motivation refers to the processes that energise, direct and sustain behaviour towards a goal. It answers the question “Why do we do what we do?” – why a student studies late at night, why an athlete practises daily, or why a person keeps searching for a job after repeated rejection.

Important theories of motivation

• Instinct theory: Early theorists proposed that many behaviours arise from inborn biological tendencies called instincts. For example, a mother’s protective behaviour towards her child or a person’s tendency to seek food and shelter were seen as instinctive. This theory is important historically, but it could not explain the influence of learning and culture on behaviour.
• Drive reduction theory: According to this view, biological needs (like hunger, thirst, need for sleep) create an internal tension or “drive”. The person is motivated to reduce this drive and restore balance (homeostasis). For instance, when you feel hungry (drive), you are motivated to search for food; once you eat, the drive is reduced and you feel relaxed.
• Arousal theory: This theory suggests that we try to maintain an optimal level of arousal (alertness). Too little arousal leads to boredom; too much arousal causes anxiety. A student who has no challenge may lose interest, while too many exams together may cause stress. People differ in the level of arousal at which they perform best.
• Incentive theory: Here the emphasis is on external rewards or incentives. Our behaviour is pulled by attractive goals (marks, money, praise, promotions) or pushed away from unpleasant outcomes (punishment, social rejection). A student may work hard not only because of internal interest, but also due to scholarships or family appreciation.
• Cognitive approaches: Cognitive views highlight how our thoughts, expectations and interpretations influence motivation. If a person believes “my effort will make a difference”, he or she is more likely to work hard. If another student thinks “nothing will change”, motivation becomes low even when ability is good.
• Humanistic view – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Maslow proposed that motives are arranged in a hierarchy from basic to higher needs. At the base are physiological needs (food, water, sleep), followed by safety needs (security, protection), love and belongingness (family, friends, affection), esteem needs (respect, recognition, achievement) and finally self-actualisation (realising one’s full potential). Generally, lower needs should be reasonably satisfied before higher motives become prominent. For example, it is difficult to think about self-actualisation if a person is struggling for food and shelter.
• Learned needs – Achievement, affiliation and power: Some motives are shaped through experience, such as need for achievement (desire to excel and succeed), need for affiliation (desire to form close relationships) and need for power (desire to influence others). A student with high achievement motivation sets challenging goals and enjoys working hard for them.

In real life, our behaviour is usually guided by a combination of these factors – biological needs, external incentives and inner goals – rather than by a single theory alone.

Question 3-1: Neurons and Their Types

What is a neuron?

A neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. All our thoughts, feelings and actions – from solving a maths problem to riding a bicycle – depend on the activity of millions of neurons working together.

Main parts of a neuron

• Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and other structures needed to keep the cell alive. It is like the control centre of the neuron.
• Dendrites: These are short, branch-like extensions that receive signals from other neurons and carry them towards the cell body. When friends send you messages on a group chat, you can think of dendrites as the part that “receives” the messages.
• Axon: A long fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands. Some axons are covered with a fatty layer called the myelin sheath, which speeds up the transmission of impulses.
• Axon terminals: These are small branches at the end of the axon which make contact with dendrites or cell bodies of other neurons at junctions called synapses.

Functional classification of neurons

• Sensory (afferent) neurons: They carry information from sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) to the brain and spinal cord. For example, when you touch a hot vessel, sensory neurons send the “heat” message to your central nervous system.
• Motor (efferent) neurons: They carry commands from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. When you quickly pull your hand away from the hot vessel, it is because motor neurons have carried the message to your arm muscles.
• Interneurons (association neurons): These are found within the brain and spinal cord. They connect sensory and motor neurons and help in processing information. Most neurons in the human nervous system are interneurons, forming complex networks that support thinking, memory and decision-making.

In day-to-day life, we rarely think about neurons, but every time you type on a keyboard, recognise a friend’s face or remember a phone number, billions of neurons are actively carrying and integrating signals.

Question 3-2: Classical Conditioning – Learning by Association

Basic idea

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a person or animal starts responding to a new stimulus because it has been repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. Pavlov’s work with dogs is the best-known example.

Main terms

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically produces a response. In Pavlov’s experiment, food was the UCS.
• Unconditioned response (UCR): The natural, automatic response to the UCS. Salivation to food is UCR.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus which, after being paired with the UCS, begins to produce a response. Pavlov used the sound of a bell as CS.
• Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to the CS. After repeated pairing, the dog started salivating to the bell alone; this salivation became CR.

Process in simple steps

• Before learning: Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR); Bell (neutral) → No salivation.
• During learning: Bell (neutral) + Food (UCS) presented together several times.
• After learning: Bell alone (now CS) → Salivation (CR).

Everyday examples

• A student who repeatedly faces scolding in mathematics class may start feeling anxious simply on seeing the maths textbook. The book, which was originally neutral, becomes a CS for anxiety.
• A particular ringtone that always played before your favourite show may itself bring a feeling of excitement after some time.

Classical conditioning shows how many of our emotional reactions – liking, disliking, fear, comfort – can develop through simple associations in daily life.

Question 4: Types, Components and Functions of Emotions

What are emotions?

Emotions are complex reactions involving feelings, bodily changes and expressive behaviours that occur in response to important events in our life. Joy after passing an exam, anger at unfair treatment, fear before a medical test – all are examples of emotions.

Types of emotions

• Basic or primary emotions: Emotions like happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust are considered basic because they are seen across cultures and have a clear facial expression.
• Complex emotions: Emotions such as pride, guilt, shame, jealousy and love are more complex. They usually develop later and depend more on social learning and culture.

Components of emotions

• Physiological component: Emotions bring changes in body systems such as heart rate, breathing, sweating and hormone levels. For example, before viva-voce, many students notice faster heartbeat and dry mouth.
• Subjective or experiential component: This is the inner feeling or personal experience of emotion – “I feel happy”, “I am worried”, “I am angry”. It cannot be directly observed by others.
• Behavioural (expressive) component: Emotions are expressed through facial expressions, tone of voice, body posture and actions. Smiling, frowning, crying or shouting are outward signs of emotional states.

Important functions of emotions

• Adaptive function: Emotions help us adjust to our environment. Fear prepares us to escape from danger; anger may energise us to remove obstacles; happiness encourages us to repeat enjoyable activities.
• Motivational function: Emotions energise behaviour. A strong desire to succeed can motivate a student to study regularly, while anxiety about failure may also push someone to prepare more seriously (up to a point).
• Communicative function: Emotions help us communicate our state to others without words. A friend can often sense when you are upset by your face and tone, even if you say “I am fine”.
• Social function: Emotions play a central role in building and maintaining relationships. Sharing joy strengthens bonds; expressing sympathy in sad times creates closeness; guilt and shame can stop us from violating social rules.
• Health-related function: Proper management of emotions can protect physical and mental health. Chronic suppression of anger or constant worry may contribute to stress-related problems, whereas constructive expression (talking, problem-solving, relaxation) reduces stress.

Thus, emotions are not just “feelings”; they are organised response patterns that influence how we think, behave and relate to others in everyday life.

Question 5-1: Nature–Nurture Debate and Individual Differences

Individual differences – basic idea

People differ in many ways – in height and weight, in intelligence, in interests, in language ability, in how quickly they get angry or calm down. These differences are called individual differences and they are central to psychological study.

Nature (heredity) view

“Nature” refers to the genetic material we inherit from our parents – for example, eye colour, basic body structure and some temperamental tendencies. Nativists argue that many differences in behaviour, intelligence and personality are mainly due to this inborn biological make-up.

Nurture (environment) view

“Nurture” includes all environmental influences such as family atmosphere, parenting style, nutrition, schooling, peer group, culture and life events. Environmentalists emphasise that differences among people arise because their experiences and surroundings are different. The same child may develop differently in a supportive versus neglectful environment.

Interactionist or modern view

Contemporary psychology does not support any extreme position. Research suggests that heredity and environment continuously interact. For example, a child may inherit genes for tall height, but if nourishment is poor, he or she may not grow very tall. Similarly, a child with a good potential for music still needs training and practice to become a skilled musician.

Implication for understanding individual differences

In real life, when we look at differences in resilience, intelligence or aggressiveness among students in the same class, it is more realistic to say that both their genetic predispositions and their learning history have shaped who they are today. This balanced view is useful in education and counselling because it encourages us to improve environmental conditions (teaching methods, emotional support) instead of blaming either “bad genes” or “bad upbringing” alone.

Question 5-2: Assessment of Intelligence

Why assess intelligence?

Assessment of intelligence helps in identifying a person’s level of intellectual functioning in comparison to others of the same age. In practical terms, it is used in educational planning, career guidance, identifying special needs and research.

Early development of intelligence testing

• Binet–Simon scale: Binet and Simon (1905) developed the first scientific test of intelligence to identify children who needed special help in schools. Later they introduced the ideas of Mental Age (MA) – the level at which a child is functioning intellectually – and Chronological Age (CA) – the child’s actual age.
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): William Stern proposed IQ as a ratio of MA to CA multiplied by 100: IQ = (MA / CA) × 100. If MA equals CA, IQ is 100 (average level). Higher MA than CA implies above-average intelligence; lower MA indicates below-average performance.

Types of intelligence tests

• Individual tests: These are administered to one person at a time by a trained examiner. Examples include the Stanford–Binet test and various Wechsler scales. They allow for detailed observation of the person’s behaviour (e.g., how they approach a difficult puzzle).
• Group tests: These can be given to many people together, such as in school or recruitment settings. They are economical and quicker, though they provide less qualitative information.
• Verbal tests: Items mainly involve language – definitions, analogies, comprehension, arithmetic problems stated in words. They require reading and writing ability, so they may not be suitable for all populations.
• Non-verbal tests: These use pictures, patterns, figures and require minimal language. Examples include picture completion and pattern arrangement tasks. They are useful for people with language difficulties and help to reduce cultural bias.
• Culture-fair tests: These tests try to minimise the influence of specific cultural experiences (like particular school content or urban lifestyle) so that people from different backgrounds can be compared more fairly.

When used carefully, intelligence tests offer helpful information, but they should never be treated as the only measure of a person’s worth or potential. Factors like motivation, creativity, interest and opportunities also play major roles in real-life success.

Question 6: Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

General idea of psychoanalytic approach

Psychoanalytic theories, starting with Sigmund Freud, emphasise the role of unconscious processes, early childhood experiences and inner conflicts in shaping personality. They suggest that much of our behaviour is driven by motives and memories that we are not fully aware of.

Freud’s contribution

• Levels of mind: Freud divided the mind into conscious (what we are aware of right now), preconscious (memories we can bring to awareness) and unconscious (deep wishes, fears and conflicts which influence behaviour without our awareness).
• Structure of personality – Id, Ego and Superego:
  • Id: Present from birth; operates on the pleasure principle; seeks immediate gratification of basic instincts (hunger, sex, aggression) without considering reality or morality.
  • Ego: Develops to deal with the demands of reality. It operates on the reality principle and tries to satisfy the id’s desires in socially acceptable ways. For example, instead of snatching food, the ego may suggest waiting or buying it.
  • Superego: Represents internalised moral standards, values and ideals taught by parents and society. It judges actions as right or wrong and produces feelings of pride or guilt.
  The ego constantly tries to balance the demands of id, superego and external reality.
• Psychosexual stages: Freud described five stages – oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital – each associated with pleasure in different body areas. Unresolved conflicts at any stage may lead to fixation and influence adult personality.

Neo-Freudians

Some theorists accepted Freud’s basic ideas but modified them:

• Alfred Adler: Focused more on social interest and the feeling of inferiority. According to him, humans are motivated to overcome feelings of weakness and to strive for superiority in positive ways.
• Carl Jung: Proposed the idea of a collective unconscious – a deeper layer shared by all human beings containing universal symbols (archetypes). He also discussed personality types such as introversion and extraversion.
• Erik Erikson: Gave a psychosocial theory with eight stages from infancy to old age. At each stage, the individual faces a specific crisis (for example, trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion), and successful resolution leads to healthy personality development.

In everyday life, psychoanalytic ideas help us understand why people sometimes repeat unhelpful patterns, why early family experiences leave a deep mark, and why insight into hidden feelings can bring relief and change.

Question 7: Human Development – Meaning, Issues and Periods

Meaning of human development

Human development refers to the orderly and meaningful changes that occur in a person from conception to death. These changes include physical growth, cognitive development, emotional maturity and social relationships. Development is a continuous, lifelong process.

Major issues in the study of human development

• Nature vs. nurture: This issue asks whether development is mainly due to biological inheritance (nature) or environmental influences (nurture). Modern views emphasise that both heredity and environment work together.
• Continuity vs. discontinuity: Some aspects of development appear gradual and continuous (such as vocabulary growth), whereas others seem to change in distinct stages (for example, moving from concrete to abstract thinking).
• Stability vs. change: Psychologists are interested in knowing which characteristics remain relatively stable (like basic temperament) and which can change significantly through learning and experience (like attitudes or habits).
• Cultural and contextual influences: Development is also shaped by culture, family type, economic conditions and historical time period. Growing up in a rural village is different from growing up in a big city, and this affects values, roles and opportunities.

Main periods of development across the life span

• Prenatal period (conception to birth): Rapid physical growth takes place in the womb. Mother’s health, nutrition and emotional state strongly influence the developing organism.
• Infancy (birth to about 2 years): Basic trust, attachment, sensory and motor skills develop. Infants learn to sit, crawl, walk and speak first words.
• Early childhood (about 2 to 6 years): Often called the “pre-school years”. Language develops rapidly, imagination blossoms and children begin to play with peers and learn simple rules.
• Middle childhood (about 6 to 11 years): School becomes central. Children develop academic skills, logical thinking, cooperation, and a sense of competence.
• Adolescence (about 12 to 18 years): Marked by puberty, identity exploration and increased independence. Young people think more abstractly and are concerned about future career and relationships.
• Early adulthood: Individuals often focus on higher education, job, marriage and starting a family. Responsibilities and social roles expand.
• Middle adulthood: People typically manage career, family and social responsibilities. Many reassess life goals and sometimes experience a “mid-life review”.
• Late adulthood (old age): There may be decline in some physical abilities, but experience and wisdom increase. Issues of retirement, health and life review become important.

Understanding these periods helps students and professionals to provide age-appropriate support, whether in classrooms, counselling or health settings.

Question 8: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Basic idea

Jean Piaget studied how children’s thinking changes as they grow. He proposed that children are not just “small adults”; they actively construct their understanding of the world. According to him, cognitive development takes place through four major stages, each with a different way of thinking.

Key processes

• Schemata: Mental structures or frameworks that help us organise knowledge – for example, a child’s idea of “dog”.
• Assimilation: Fitting new experiences into existing schemas. A child who knows “dog” may call a cow “big dog” initially.
• Accommodation: Changing schemas when new information does not fit. Gradually the child learns that cows and dogs are different animals.

Stages of cognitive development

• 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years) Children understand the world mainly through sensory experiences and motor actions – looking, sucking, grasping. A major achievement of this stage is object permanence – realising that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight (for example, knowing that a toy covered by a cloth is still there).
• 2. Pre-operational stage (about 2 to 7 years) Language develops rapidly and children can use symbols (words, images) to represent objects. However, thinking is still intuitive and egocentric. Children may have difficulty seeing things from another person’s point of view. They are also easily misled by appearances; for instance, they may think that a taller glass has “more juice” even if the amount is the same.
• 3. Concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years) Children begin to think logically about concrete objects and events. They understand the concept of conservation – that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape (for example, clay ball rolled into a long shape is “same clay”). They can classify objects, arrange them in order (seriation) and perform simple mental operations, but they still find purely abstract ideas difficult.
• 4. Formal operational stage (about 11 years and above) Adolescents can think abstractly, reason logically about hypothetical situations and use systematic problem-solving strategies. They can consider “what if” questions, think about different possibilities and reflect on moral, political or philosophical issues. For example, they can discuss the possible effects of a new government policy even if they have not directly experienced it.

Piaget’s work has had a strong influence on education. It reminds teachers and parents that children at different ages think in different ways, so teaching methods and expectations should be matched to their level of cognitive development.